If you’re learning JavaScript, you’ve probably heard the term “closure” at some point. In many developers’ experience, just hearing this word can trigger anxiety. In nearly 17 years of programming experience, I’ve noticed that closures are one of the most intimidating topics for JavaScript developers, even though they shouldn’t be.

The main goal of this handbook is to remove that fear. By the end of this guide, you should be able to confidently say, “I’m not afraid of closures anymore!”

Closures aren’t actually that complicated at all when you break them down. They just might seem harder to grasp while you don’t understand them clearly. Many articles or tutorials don’t explain the topic deeply, which leaves you confused, asking questions like, “What exactly is a closure?” or “What does it really mean?”

Throughout this handbook, I’ll walk you through several examples step by step. If you stick with this guide until the end, I promise – all your confusion about closures should disappear.

1. Prerequisites

2. Project Setup Before Learning Closures

   • Create a New Project Folder

   • Create the index.html File

   • Create the script Folder + Seven Example Files

   • Very Important Note

   • Run the Project

3. Functions and Parameters – The Basics

4. Accessing Variables Without Parameters

5. Understanding Scope and Lexical Scoping

6. What is a Closure?

7. Functions as Objects

8. The Function-Parent Relationship

9. Nested Functions and Closures

10. Refining the Example

11. Creating Private Properties with Closures

12. The Role of Closures in Privacy

13. Understanding Closure Mechanics

    • How Closures Make Decisions

14. Closures and Enclosing Scopes

    • The Documentation Definition

    • The Enclosing Scope Concept

    • Interpreting the Closure Definition

15. Practical Example – Self-Contained Closures

    • Understanding References

16. The Difference Between var and let

    • Understanding var and let Scoping

    • Observing the Difference

    • Using IIFE with let

17. Understanding Closures Through a Practical Stopwatch Example

    • Defining the Stopwatch Function

    • Using the Stopwatch

    • Calling the Timer Function

    • Inspecting the Timer Function

    • Closures and Garbage Collection

18. Closures in Asynchronous Code

    • Basic Asynchronous Example with setTimeout

    • External Function Reference Example

19. Practical Example: API Requests with Closures

    • Refactoring with External Function

20. Advanced Example – Closures in Loops

    • Synchronous Loop Example

    • Asynchronous Loop Example

    • The var vs let Problem

    • Using console.dir with Loop Closures

    • The var Loop Problem

    • Fixing the var Loop Problem with IIFE

21. Summary and Key Takeaways

    • What is a Closure?

    • The Main Ideas in This Guide

    • The Importance of Closures

22. Final Words

Prerequisites

To follow along and get the most out of this guide, you should have:

1. Basic JavaScript (ES6-style) knowledge

2. Familiarity with browser developer tools

3. Comfort with asynchronous code (promises)

4. Basic ability to use the terminal/command line

5. Familiarity with a code editor like VS Code – Live Server extension (for running HTML files locally)

I’ve also created a video to go along with this article. If you’re the type who likes to learn from video as well as text, you can check it out below.

Project Setup Before Learning Closures

Closures are an amazing concept in JavaScript. But if you jump into the code without preparation, they can feel a bit intimidating.

So before we start exploring closures, let’s set up a simple, clean project where you can test each example comfortably. Once this setup is done, you won’t need to repeat it again and again throughout the article. So follow along carefully and you’ll prepare everything at once.

Create a New Project Folder

Open your terminal and run:

mkdir closure cd closure 

This folder will contain your main HTML file and all the JavaScript examples.

Create the index.html File

Now create the HTML file:

touch index.html 

Open index.html and add the following code:

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <title>Closure Tutorial | LogicBase Labs</title> </head> <body> <script src="./script/example-1.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-2.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-3.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-4.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-5.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-6.js"></script> <script src="./script/example-7.js"></script> </body> </html> 

Why so many <script> tags?

Good question! In this tutorial, you’ll explore closures in 7 different ways. Each example will live in its own JavaScript file, so things stay clean and beginner-friendly. If you tried to put everything inside one file, the outputs would get mixed up and confusing. That’s why you’re loading each example separately.

Create the script Folder + Seven Example Files

Let’s create a folder named script:

mkdir script cd script 

Now create the seven example files:

touch example-1.js touch example-2.js touch example-3.js touch example-4.js touch example-5.js touch example-6.js touch example-7.js 

You’ll write and test each closure example inside these files.

Very Important Note:

If all 7 files run at the same time, your console output will get mixed up. You won’t understand which message came from which example.

So here’s the rule:

• When working on example-1.js, comment out the rest.

• When working on example-3.js, uncomment that one only, and comment out the others.

Example:

<!-- <script src="./script/example-1.js"></script> --> <!-- <script src="./script/example-2.js"></script> --> <script src="./script/example-3.js"></script> <!-- <script src="./script/example-4.js"></script> --> <!-- <script src="./script/example-5.js"></script> --> <!-- <script src="./script/example-6.js"></script> --> <!-- <script src="./script/example-7.js"></script> --> 

This keeps your output clean, clear, and conflict-free.

Run the Project

Open Live Server from VS Code and you’ll see: http://127.0.0.1:5500/closure/index.html

This is your working route. Inside this project, you’ll explore the full world of closures step by step. Now you’re ready to dive into closures and learn what they are, how they work, and why closures are one of the most powerful concepts in JavaScript.

Functions and Parameters – The Basics

So now you will mainly work on the example-1.js file. Listen, throughout this entire handbook, you will first write the full code, and then we’ll go line by line to understand the breakdown in detail. There’s nothing to worry about: we will uncover every single thing in its full depth.

Full code: example-1.js

// example-1.js function sum(num1, num2) { return num1 + num2; } console.log(sum(2, 3)); 

Usually, when you want to use an outside variable inside a function, you pass it as a parameter. For example, consider a function called sum:

function sum(num1, num2) 

Here, two numbers are taken as parameters. To add these numbers and return the result:

return num1 + num2; 

To see the output:

console.log(sum(2, 3)); 

The output will be 5. Simple, right?

Accessing Variables Without Parameters

Full code: example-1.js

var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.log(sum()); 

But in JavaScript, there’s a way to do the same thing without passing parameters. Let’s remove the parameters from the sum function. Instead, you’ll define two variables in the global scope:

var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; 

Now, when you call sum(), the output will still be 5.

The question is: “how does JavaScript do this?” It seems strange, right? Inside a function, you’re using variables that don’t actually belong to that function – they exist outside in the wider environment where the function was created. In simple terms, the function is using variables from its parent scope.

Understanding Scope and Lexical Scoping

This concept relates to one of the most fundamental principles in JavaScript: everything from a parent is accessible to the child. If there were nested functions inside this function, even the deepest child function could access variables like num1 and num2 from the parent. The parent’s variables are fully accessible to the child, but nothing from the child can be accessed by the parent.

I’ve already covered this topic in a detailed video on JavaScript Scope on the LogicBase Labs YouTube channel. If you’d like to revisit the concept or get a quick refresher, you can watch the video below.

For example, if you define a new variable inside the sum function, it cannot be accessed from outside the function. This is the core idea of scope. This system of scope is theoretically called Lexical Scoping. Since today’s topic is Closures, understanding scope is essential, as closures and scope are deeply connected.

According to lexical scoping, a child function can access its parent’s variables, but a parent cannot access the child’s. This isn’t random – it’s a specific convention or guideline in JavaScript.

What is a Closure?

The word “closure” literally means a “bond” or “enclosure.” Think of it like keeping a variable safely locked away, just like storing something inside a box.

Even though the box is closed, you can still use its contents when needed. This is why it’s called a closure: because you keep a function’s variables enclosed in such a way that, even if the outside world cannot access them directly, the function itself can still use them whenever required.

Functions as Objects

In JavaScript, whenever you write a function, the function is actually treated as an object. Every function in JavaScript works as an object. Just as you can console.log an object to see it, you can also inspect a function.

Let’s print our sum function:

console.dir(sum); 

Notice that you’re not calling the function. Rather, you’re just printing its body. You use dir instead of log because console.log only shows the function body, while console.dir displays the function as an object, letting you see each of its properties one by one. You can think of it as an upgraded version of console.log.

Looking at the output, you’ll see an object. Expanding it reveals many properties, like name, length, prototype, and more. At the very bottom, there’s a property called Scopes. Inside Scopes, there’s a section named Global containing further details. The Scopes property is what we’ll mainly focus on here.

The Function-Parent Relationship

Notice something here: the sum function has its own world, right? So why is it still referencing the global scope?

Every function actually maintains a connection with its parent environment. It doesn’t just live in its own world – it keeps a link to the environment where it was created. Simply put, it always holds a reference to its parent.

Why does it do this? Because if anything changes in the parent environment (like a variable’s value or the need to use it inside the function), the function can still access it.

This whole process is the core concept of a closure. A function keeps track of the variables it uses from outside its own scope by closing over its parent, and its parent’s parent – essentially the entire scope chain above it – holds them as references.

That’s why this example is actually the simplest form of a closure. The sum function itself is a closure because it has captured some variables from its outer environment and can use them whenever needed.

Even though you often see closures explained with examples where “a function is inside another function,” the fundamental idea starts here: “any function that retains access to variables from its outer scope is, in essence, a closure.”

Nested Functions and Closures

Full code: example-1.js

// example-1.js var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; function sum() { return function () { return num1 + num2; }; } var myFunc = sum(); console.dir(myFunc); 

You can understand this even more clearly by tweaking the previous sum function. Instead of directly returning a value, you’ll have the sum function return another function:

return function () {}; 

And inside this inner function, you write:

return num1 + num2; 

So what does this mean? The sum function is no longer returning a value directly. Instead, it’s returning a function.

Now, create another variable called myFunc:

var myFunc = sum(); 

You called the sum function, and whatever it returned (the inner function) is now stored in myFunc. In other words, myFunc is essentially the inner function returned by sum.

If you print myFunc to the console:

console.dir(myFunc); 

You’ll see num1 and num2 listed as variables in the output. This function is still holding onto its global environment. Even though it’s an inner function, it’s still connected to the global scope and maintains the same global references as before.

Refining the Example

Full code: example-1.js

// example-1.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return function () { return num1 + num2; }; } var myFunc = sum(); console.dir(myFunc); 

Now, remove the num2 variable from the global scope and define it inside the sum function instead.

This time, in the browser, you can clearly see something labeled “Closure.” In other words, the browser is directly showing that a closure has been created inside this function.

In older versions of Chrome, you would have seen “Closure” in the previous example too. But in the newer versions, it shows as “Global” until a function actually closes over another function. When a function is returned from within another function, that’s when the browser displays “Closure.” But keep in mind that theoretically, the previous example was also a kind of closure. The difference is just in how the browser presents it.

When you did console.dir(myFunc), you saw that this inner function is using both num1 and num2:

• num1 is in the global scope

• num2 is inside the sum function’s scope

So what is this inner function doing? It’s taking a reference to num1 from the global scope and at the same time taking a reference to num2 from its parent function, sum. In other words, this inner function now carries two worlds within it: one is the global scope, and the other is its parent scope. This is exactly what a closure does: it keeps all the outer scopes it needs “enclosed” so it can use their variables whenever necessary.

In the browser, you can see that inside this closure, num2 exists, while num1 remains in the global scope. So num1 is no longer part of the closure. What does this mean? The function only carries the parts of the environment it actually needs for its execution. Simply put, it takes all the variables it needs, along with their references, as a compact package.

Think of it like the function holding onto references: whenever any of these variables are updated, the function can see those changes because it’s still connected to the same references.

If you called myFunc = sum() once and keep calling sum() repeatedly, there’s no problem. Each time, a new function will create its own separate scope and keep a reference to that scope. You defined a function and then called it elsewhere. Every time you call that function, it can still access the data from its previous scope. That’s because every function preserves all the information from its parent scope as references. This is exactly how a function remembers its outer variables – and this is what a closure is.

Creating Private Properties with Closures

So far, all the examples you’ve seen were very simple. Now, let’s look at a practical example that will help you understand closures better and clear up any confusion.

Think about other programming languages for a minute: when you want to create a private property, what do you usually do? You define a property inside a class and mark it as “private” so that no one can access it directly from outside the class. Then, inside the class, you create one or more public functions (like getters or setters) which allow controlled access to or modification of that property. In other words, you can’t touch the property directly from outside – you can only interact with it through specific functions defined inside the class.

In JavaScript, you can achieve the same idea much more simply using closures, entirely in a functional style.

How? Let’s see an example. Suppose you have a simple function:

Full code: example-2.js

// example-2.js function bankAccount(initialBalance) { var balance = initialBalance; return function () { return balance; }; } var account = bankAccount(100000); console.log(account()); console.dir(account); 

function bankAccount(initialBalance) {} 

You’ve named it bankAccount, and it takes the user’s initial balance as a parameter.

Inside it, define a variable:

var balance = initialBalance; 

So, the user’s initial balance is stored internally in a variable called balance. Next, return a function that returns this balance variable. In other words, the balance can only be accessed through this returned function.

Outside, in the global scope, create a variable:

var account = bankAccount(100000); 

Here, you called the bankAccount function and passed 100000 as the initial balance. What is this function actually doing? It’s returning another function. So now, the account variable holds that returned function.

If you write in the console:

console.log(account()); 

The output will be 100000.

But if you try this:

console.log(balance); 

it won’t work, because the balance variable cannot be accessed from outside.

What does this mean? The balance property is protected or private. No one from the outside can directly touch it. To see the balance, you can only call the returned function inside the original function. This is how you keep balance as a private variable and control access to it.

The Role of Closures in Privacy

So, what’s the role of the closure here? It’s exactly what makes this possible. The inner function is the closure. If you write:

console.dir(account); 

You’ll see that inside the account function is the returned function.

By taking the output and expanding it, you’ll see that the balance variable exists inside the closure. Exactly, right? This means that balance wasn’t created inside the account function itself – it was created one scope level up. Yet, you can still access balance from the returned function.

It’s similar to the previous example, but this use case is slightly different. Here, you’re showing how a private property can be kept secure. Even though you called the inner function from the outside, it still had access to balance within its scope. So, the outer scope cannot directly access balance, but thanks to the closure, you can maintain a reference to it. Even though the function is called from outside, the closure allows you to access the private property in a protected way.

Why protected? Because you’re not accessing it directly – you can only see balance through the function call.

💡This is another powerful use case of closures: securing private properties so that they can’t be directly accessed from outside, but only through specific functions.

Understanding Closure Mechanics

How Closures Make Decisions

Now, let’s look at another aspect of closures. We’ll revisit our first example.

Previous code: example-1.js

// example-1.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return function () { return num1 + num2; }; } var myFunc = sum(); console.dir(myFunc); 

In that example, you used a variable called num2 inside the inner function. That’s why the function acted as a closure, right?

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return function () { return num1; }; } var myFunc = sum(); console.dir(myFunc); 

Now, keep the variable but stop using num2 inside the inner function. If you check the output, you’ll see that the closure is gone. Why?

It’s because num2 isn’t used inside the inner function. JavaScript smartly recognizes that this variable isn’t needed, so it’s not included in the closure. In other words, JavaScript decides on its own: variables that won’t be used inside the function, even if they exist in the outer scope, are not included in the closure. Only the variables that the function actually needs become part of the closure.

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; var num = 6; return function () { return num; }; } var myFunc = sum(); console.dir(myFunc); 

For example, if you define another variable inside the sum function:

var num = 6; 

and do nothing else, there’s still no need for a closure. But if you modify the inner function to return num instead of num1, the closure appears again. This time, the closure contains only num. num2 won’t be there, but num1 remains because it exists in the global scope. JavaScript preserves this scope to maintain lexical scoping.

If you look at the global scope, you can still see num1. That’s because you used the var keyword. If you had used let, it wouldn’t be visible. The key difference you’re noticing is: num1 exists in the global scope, so it remains in the closure’s “environment,” but if a variable inside the inner function isn’t used, it’s not included in the closure.

For example, if you use num1, you’re accessing the global variable. So what happens now? Will there be a closure? Look, there isn’t one. Since num1 exists in the global scope, there’s no extra need. The global scope is sufficient, and no separate closure is required. This shows how closures actually work.

A closure decides which variables need to be kept inside the function and which don’t. JavaScript makes this decision automatically. You just need to remember lexical scoping so that outer scope variables can be accessed.

In simple terms, closures make intelligent decisions. Variables used inside the function are kept “inside,” variables in outer scopes that aren’t used aren’t included, and global variables are accessible directly, so there’s no need to include them in the closure.

So here, you kept num1, and it exists in the global scope. The function can access it directly from there. But if the inner function used only num – which doesn’t exist in its own scope or globally – then a closure would have to be created to carry that variable along.

In short, a closure doesn’t wrap everything. It doesn’t include variables that are already outside. This is an important point. Another important point is that global scope variables are never included in closures.

Closures and Enclosing Scopes

The Documentation Definition

Often, there’s some confusion about when a closure appears and when it just shows global. Even senior interviewers sometimes hesitate to call the global scope a closure at first glance.

If you look at the JavaScript documentation maintained by Mozilla, the 2016 docs highlighted something important.

In the definition, it stated:

“variables that are used locally, but defined in an enclosing scope” (Reference)

This refers to variables that are used locally inside a function but are actually defined in an outer scope. This is key. Only variables that are actually used inside a function are included in the closure. Variables that exist in an outer scope but aren’t used inside the function aren’t part of the closure.

In simple terms, a closure is a function that remembers its local scope along with the necessary variables from an outer scope, so even if the function is called from outside, it can still access those variables.

The Enclosing Scope Concept

Suppose you have a variable num defined outside, but you use it locally inside the function. That’s why the browser shows it as a closure, just like the documentation says.

Full Code: example-3.js

// example-3.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return num1 + num2; } console.dir(sum); 

But if you don’t use the outer variable inside the returned function, what happens? If you removed everything else and just returned num1 + num2, the sum function would work fine. But if you do console.dir(sum), the word “closure” doesn’t appear.

Why? Because num2 is local inside the function, and there’s no need to include it in a closure. A closure is only needed to use variables from an outer scope. Since this is the very first-level outer scope (meaning the global scope) and it’s not inside any function, the sum function is already capturing it in its own scope. So no additional closure is created.

The critical question is: “when does the browser show a closure, and when doesn’t it?” The explanation comes from the documentation: “variables that are used locally, but defined in an enclosing scope.” Your num1 variable is defined outside but used locally inside. But num1 doesn’t have any enclosing scope. Here, an enclosing scope means a scope that wraps around another scope – inside a set of brackets. But num1 is directly in the global scope, not inside any enclosing scope.

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js (function () { var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return num1 + num2; } console.dir(sum); })(); 

If you want to bring this into an enclosing scope, you need to wrap the whole thing inside a function. You can write an anonymous function like this:

function(){} 

Then you put everything inside that function and immediately call it. This is known as an Immediately Invoked Function Expression (IIFE for short). It’s basically a function that gets defined and executed at the same time.

When you use an IIFE, everything gets moved into an enclosing scope. The num1 that was previously open in the global scope is now inside this function. So it’s now part of an enclosing scope. If you check in the browser and expand it, you see the word “closure.”

That’s because you’ve brought the variables into an enclosing scope. The browser now shows it as a closure.

Interpreting the Closure Definition

If someone ever gets confused or disagrees, they might say, “The outer one isn’t a closure, it’s just the global scope.” But theoretically, you can still consider it a closure. Some might insist, “That’s a closure,” while others may not agree.

The thing is, JavaScript always keeps the global scope intact to maintain lexical scoping. People who disagree might say, “The global scope is just preserved, that’s not a closure.” And that’s fair. But the concept is really the same. If a variable from an outer scope is used or referenced inside a function, it behaves just like a closure. The idea is consistent.

There’s a small difference though: the global scope keeps all variables that exist outside any function. That’s why some might argue it’s not technically a closure. But from a theoretical perspective, it behaves like one, with only minor differences for global variables.

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js var num1 = 2; function sum() { var num2 = 3; return num1 + num2; } console.dir(sum); 

If you didn’t use an IIFE and went back to the previous setup, the browser would no longer show it as a closure. And the var num1 is in the global scope.

If you add another variable:

var num3 = 5; 

This num3 isn’t used by the sum function, but if you look in the global scope, you can still see it. The browser shows num3 as well.

But a closure only keeps what’s necessary. Here, num3 exists because it’s part of the global scope. The global object always holds references to its own variables, which is why num3 is visible. This often causes confusion: should you call it a closure or not?

The point is, in the 2016 documentation, the term “enclosing scope” was clearly mentioned. In the current documentation, that phrase is missing. This means they’ve intentionally avoided that confusion.

The modern definition now says, “closure is the combination of a function bundled together with references to its surrounding state” which is written more concisely compared to before. (Reference)

Here, “state” refers to the lexical environment – that could be the child’s environment, the parent’s environment, or the entire scope. Based on this definition, a function keeps itself along with any variables it needs to remember, all bundled together. Explaining this clearly in words can be tricky. But you’ll see more examples ahead, which will make each use case clear.

Practical Example: Self-Contained Closures

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js (function () { var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.log(sum()); console.dir(sum); })(); 

Let’s look at another aspect. You’re going back to the IIFE function. Here, you have a function called sum that adds num1 and num2 and returns the result. Both num1 and num2 exist inside the IIFE function. This means you’ve kept the whole setup self-contained within a closure function.

When you call the sum function:

console.log(sum()); 

and on the next line write:

console.dir(sum); 

Check the output. Initially, 2 + 3 gives 5, which is exactly what you see. Since num1 and num2 now exist inside the global scope of the IIFE.

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js (function () { var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.log(sum()); console.dir(sum); num1 = 6; num2 = 7; console.log(sum()); console.dir(sum); })(); 

You can modify these variables if you want:

num1 = 6; num2 = 7; 

Then if you call again:

console.log(sum()); console.dir(sum); 

You’ll see two different results. The first call returns 5 because initially 2 + 3 was calculated. After changing num1 and num2, the next call returns 13. So, you can see that a closure keeps hold of the outer variables and makes them accessible inside the function, right?

Now, at that moment, you checked the function using console.dir. First, expand the dir at the bottom. Here, you see an entry labeled “closure,” and inside it, you notice num1 = 6 and num2 = 7. Great, because before writing dir, you had changed the values of num1 and num2, so it’s showing the latest values. But if you go back to the previous state and expand the first console.dir, surprisingly, it still shows num1 = 6 and num2 = 7. Both are the same – pretty weird, isn’t it?

This is because when you did console.log, the result showed 2 + 3. But in the very next line, the values hadn’t actually changed yet. In console.dir, you see that inside the closure, the values remain 6 and 7.

This is exactly what I’ve been emphasizing: a closure doesn’t really hold the values themselves. It holds a reference to the variables.

Understanding References

So, what does this mean? It means that there’s a pointer stored to the memory location of your variable. Once a reference is stored, the pointer itself stays the same, but the value can change anytime.

When you use console.dir, the browser is showing that reference, which is why it always displays the latest value. The browser works very fast, and the reference has already been updated. When you set num1 and num2 to 6 and 7 inside the closure, the reference gets updated. You’re seeing the exact same variable, but you don’t see the intermediate values. But when you do console.log, the function uses its corresponding value correctly. That’s why not every change in the intermediate scope is clearly visible. Because of reference updates, you always see the latest value, not the direct intermediate state.

So, to reiterate: a closure doesn’t store the actual values inside. It stores references to those values.

Keeping this concept in mind is really crucial.

The Difference Between var and let

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js var num1 = 2; var num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.dir(sum); 

Now, let’s look at another aspect of closures. Earlier, you declared two variables in the global scope: num1 and num2. So far, you’ve been using the var keyword. If you don’t put anything inside an IIFE and just stay in the global scope, you won’t see any closure in the browser.

But where do num1 and num2 live? Well, in the global scope. That’s why you write console.dir(sum). In the browser, you can see num1 and num2 inside the global object.

Here’s the interesting part: what happens if you replace these var keywords with let?

Understanding var and let Scoping

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js let num1 = 2; let num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.log(sum()); console.dir(sum); 

This is where the difference between var and let comes in. Many people think they’re the same, but in JavaScript, var and let are not equal.

Simply put:

• var is the old JavaScript declaration, and it’s function-scoped. A variable declared with var only lives inside the function it’s defined in. If it’s defined outside any function, it goes to the global scope.

• let is the new ES6 declaration, and it’s block-scoped. A variable declared with let only exists within the block or scope where it was defined and cannot be accessed from outside.

One important difference is hoisting. Variables declared with var are hoisted, meaning JavaScript moves the declaration to the top, but the initialization doesn’t happen. So if you use a var before it’s declared, you’ll get undefined. With let, even though it’s hoisted, the temporal dead zone ensures that using it before declaration throws an error.

Observing the Difference

Let’s see what happens if you declare the variable with let. Last time, when it was just in the global scope, you could see the variables when you did console.dir. Now, though, you see a new object named script has appeared, and num1 and num2 are no longer in the global scope.

Why is that? It’s because of the difference between let and var that you talked about earlier. let is block-scoped, while var is function-scoped. If you treat the outer context as a main function, a variable declared with var becomes part of the global scope. But with let, it stays within its block scope and doesn’t directly become part of the global object. So let actually lives inside a separate object called script and not in the global scope.

Understanding this is really important, because if you’re following along with this handbook and you’re trying to print variables while using let out of habit, the output won’t be like it is with var. This can definitely be confusing. Simply put, let doesn’t go into the global object. It exists inside a separate script object.

Using IIFE with let

Full code: example-3.js

// example-3.js (function () { let num1 = 2; let num2 = 3; function sum() { return num1 + num2; } console.dir(sum); })(); 

But what if you wrap the whole thing in an enclosing function again, like before with an IIFE? When you check the output now, everything goes back inside its closure.

Ultimately, the concept of closures remains the same: what changes is whether the variable goes into var or let scope.

Now the situation becomes a bit simpler. You have a function, and it’s in its end-closing state. According to the definition of a closure, the inner function of this function is using the outer variable num1. So, this inner function definitely needs a closure. That closure comes from exactly this function.

JavaScript creates the closure and packages num1 inside it. The outer global world always exists separately, of course. Also remember, when using console.dir in the browser, the output will look different depending on whether you’re dealing with let or var.

Understanding Closures Through a Practical Stopwatch Example

So far, all the examples you’ve seen were very simple. Now, let’s look at a practical example that will help you understand closures better and clear up any confusion.

Full code: example-4.js

// example-4.js function stopWatch() { var startTime = Date.now(); var getDelay = function () { console.log(Date.now() - startTime); }; return getDelay; } var timer = stopWatch(); for (let i = 0; i < 100000000; i++) { var a = Math.random() * 1000000; } timer(); 

Defining the Stopwatch Function

Let’s define a function:

function stopWatch() {} 

You’ve named it stopWatch, and it works just like a real stopwatch. Just like when you start a stopwatch, wait for a while, and then stop it to get the elapsed time, this function will do the same.

First, write:

var startTime = Date.now(); 

This stores the current time in startTime. Then, inside the function, define:

var getDelay = function () {}; 

Create a getDelay function, which will log the elapsed time to the console. For that, write:

console.log(Date.now() - startTime); 

Here, the elapsed time is calculated by subtracting startTime from the current time. Finally, simply return this getDelay function. The stopWatch function does just one thing: when you call stopWatch, it starts a stopwatch using Date.now() and returns a getDelay function. When you call that getDelay function, it shows the elapsed time from the start time to the current moment.

Using the Stopwatch

Now, call it. Write:

var timer = stopWatch(); 

Here, you’ve started the stopWatch. This function executes, which means startTime is set and the getDelay function is defined. Then, stopWatch returns that getDelay function. The stopWatch function itself isn’t called directly afterward – you simply called it once, and the outer function returns the getDelay function. Store this returned function in timer.

At this point, the stopWatch is already running because you called it, but you haven’t printed anything from getDelay yet. Before calling getDelay, create a fake delay like this:

for (let i = 0; i < 100000000; i++) {} 

Use a large for-loop to waste some time. You chose a big number intentionally so it takes a noticeable delay. If you want, you can also perform some expensive operations in the loop, like calculating a random number:

var a = Math.random() * 1000000; 

This way, you create a fake delay.

Calling the Timer Function

Now, we come to timer. Timer is actually a function because it was returned by calling stopWatch. This returned getDelay function acts as your actual timer. Let’s call timer() and see what happens. The output doesn’t appear instantly – it takes a moment, and then it shows up. So you get a delay.

The question is: how is this still working? The stopWatch function, where you initially called it, has already finished executing. That means everything inside that function should be gone.

So how does timer() still know the value of startTime? Especially after you added such a long delay before calling it? This means the timer function still remembers its parent function – specifically, the startTime variable inside stopWatch. It holds onto that reference.

How? Because of a closure. When getDelay was created, a closure was also created inside it that kept track of the startTime variable. So even after the delay, and even after a long time, it can still use that old value. This shows that JavaScript is really smart. It tracks all variables, references, and closures, and when needed, it can use them again. This is why this behavior is possible: because of closures.

Inspecting the Timer Function

Full code: example-4.js

// example-4.js function stopWatch() { var startTime = Date.now(); var getDelay = function () { console.log(Date.now() - startTime); }; return getDelay; } var timer = stopWatch(); for (let i = 0; i < 100000000; i++) { var a = Math.random() * 1000000; } timer(); console.dir(timer); 

If you do:

console.dir(timer); 

like before and check the output in the browser, you’ll notice it takes some time to appear because of the delay. But even after the delay, it still retains startTime inside the closure.

If you try:

console.log(startTime); 

you won’t be able to access startTime directly. But since timer is a member function, it can use that startTime you initialized long ago, before the for-loop. It still remembers startTime. No matter how long the delay, it can keep track. Even if there were more lines of code or more expensive operations during the delay, at the end of the day, when you call the timer, the closure ensures that startTime is correctly preserved.

This is one of the more fascinating aspects of JavaScript: it can really remember such information, and this is one of the biggest use cases of closures.

Closures and Garbage Collection

This is one of the most powerful features of closures. Because of closures, no matter how many times you call the timer() function, each call works independently and keeps its own reference. Every time, a new reference is created and held as long as it’s needed.

Let’s consider a small example – but imagine in a large application, there could be countless closures holding references to many variables. Naturally, the question arises: if so many things are being remembered, will performance suffer?

This is where JavaScript’s performance optimization comes in. JavaScript is a smart, garbage-collected language. That means when JavaScript realizes that a reference or variable is no longer needed, it automatically removes it from memory.

In some situations, programmers can manually optimize. For example, if you created a timer holding a reference to a getDelay() function, but you haven’t called getDelay() yet, JavaScript doesn’t know if it will be used in the future, so it keeps the reference.

Full code: example-4.js

// example-4.js function stopWatch() { var startTime = Date.now(); var getDelay = function () { console.log(Date.now() - startTime); }; return getDelay; } var timer = stopWatch(); for (let i = 0; i < 100000000; i++) { var a = Math.random() * 1000000; } timer(); console.dir(timer); timer = null; timer(); 

If you’re certain it won’t be used anymore, you can manually clear the reference by writing:

timer = null; 

Now, timer() won’t work because you set it to null. JavaScript understands that it’s no longer needed and garbage collects the reference from memory. If you try this in the browser, you’ll see an error: “TypeError: timer is not a function” – because timer is now null.

Simply put, setting timer = null tells JavaScript, “This variable won’t be used anymore, forget it.” The Garbage Collector then recognizes that there are no references and quietly removes it from memory, preventing memory waste.

The interesting part is that JavaScript doesn’t just run the code – it predicts a lot even before compilation. When it sees timer = null, it already knows, “Okay, the programmer used this timer only this much, and it won’t be needed anymore.” So as soon as the code finishes running, it intelligently cleans up the memory.

This makes your program automatically optimized. There are no memory leaks, browser load decreases, and JavaScript executes faster. This is a very small example, but it already shows how elegantly you can manage performance in JavaScript.

Closures in Asynchronous Code

So far, all the examples you’ve seen were using closures in a synchronous way. Now, many people might wonder, “Okay, but how do closures work in asynchronous situations?”

That’s a very good question. In real-world coding, most tasks run asynchronously – like with setTimeout, fetch, or event listener functions. The key point is, synchronous code executes line by line, but asynchronous code takes some time to complete. That means you call a function, but its result arrives a little later.

So the question is: if the outer scope has already finished by then, how does the inner function still remember the values of the outer variables?

This is exactly where the true power of closures comes in. A closure keeps the reference to the outer scope as long as the inner function hasn’t executed yet. That means whether the code is synchronous or asynchronous, closures work the same way.

Basic Asynchronous Example with setTimeout

Full code: example-5.js

// example-5.js function asyncExample() { var a = 20; setTimeout(function () { console.log(a); }, 3000); } asyncExample(); 

Now let’s see a small asynchronous example to understand how closures work and why they are just as reliable in asynchronous scenarios.

Define a function:

function asyncExample() {} 

Inside this function, write:

var a = 20; 

You’ve defined a variable. Next, use JavaScript’s built-in setTimeout function:

setTimeout(function () {}); 

setTimeout takes two parameters: one is the function to run, and the other is the time in milliseconds, meaning it will call that function after the specified delay.

Now, suppose you put console.log(a) inside that function. Surprisingly, even though a isn’t defined inside the timeout function, it can still access the a from asyncExample‘s outer scope. This is possible because of closures. After 3 seconds, it appears, and you see 20. This is also possible because of closures. The function inside setTimeout doesn’t have a defined within itself, yet it can access a from asyncExample‘s scope.

External Function Reference Example

Full code: example-5.js

// example-5.js function asyncExample() { var a = 20; function myFunc() { console.log(a); } setTimeout(myFunc, 3000); console.dir(myFunc); } asyncExample(); 

Now, what if you define the setTimeout function outside asyncExample, just for demonstration – like this:

function myFunc() {} 

Inside myFunc, write:

console.log(a); 

Then pass myFunc into setTimeout and also write:

console.dir(myFunc); 

If you check the output of console.dir, you’ll see that inside myFunc, the closure contains the variable a=20. This is because a was part of asyncExample‘s scope, so myFunc can still access it.

Just like before, this is possible thanks to closures. But here, there’s a subtle difference. Earlier, you talked about a reference example, but this reference works a little differently.

Full code: example-5.js

// example-5.js var a = 20; function asyncExample() { function myFunc() { console.log(a); } setTimeout(myFunc, 3000); console.dir(myFunc); } asyncExample(); a = 30; 

Suppose the variable a=20 was originally inside asyncExample. Now, if you move a to the global scope and write:

var a = 20; 

In simple terms, you’ve defined it outside. Now, the closure won’t show it, because it’s part of the global scope. a will just exist in the global scope with a value of 20. You call the asyncExample function, which starts the setTimeout timer. Then, on the next line after calling asyncExample, you change the value of a:

a = 30; 

Now think: if myFunc is called as the callback for setTimeout and does console.log(a), what value will it show? If you check the output, it will show 30.

What does this mean?

When asyncExample is called, the setTimeout starts and myFunc is ready as the callback. Inside myFunc, you have console.log(a). At that moment, a was 20 in its parent scope. But since a is now global and its value has been changed from outside, when the callback executes, it shows 30.

This demonstrates that closures actually hold a reference to the variable. If the variable is global, any external changes are also tracked. So if you expand the global a in the console, you’ll see a = 30.

I mentioned earlier that closures keep a reference to the value. So when setTimeout sends the callback to the main thread after 3 seconds, myFunc can still access that reference. Remember, myFunc comes back via setTimeout from another place – it doesn’t run directly on the main thread. This is part of asynchronous JavaScript.

The function is called in the main thread after returning from the Web API, but it still retains the reference to a. Since a has been changed globally, when myFunc prints it, it shows the new value 30.

This point is very important. Practicing multiple examples will help you better understand how closures track outer variables in asynchronous situations. This is why you need to be careful when using global variables and var.

This is also the reason var can sometimes cause conflicts, and why the let keyword was introduced. For example, if you define var a globally and later change a somewhere in the program, any asynchronous functions referencing a will use the new value. That’s why using var with setTimeout or other asynchronous functions can lead to such issues.

💡An important point is that a closure doesn’t keep the entire variable from its parent scope. It only keeps a reference to that variable.

Practical Example: API Requests with Closures

Now, let’s see another practical example of closures. In typical JavaScript applications, you often make AJAX requests to fetch data from an API URL. We’ll see how closures are used in this context. For API requests like this, JavaScript’s built-in fetch function can be used, though third-party libraries like axios or jQuery AJAX can also accomplish the same task.

Full code: example-6.js

// example-6.js function apiFunction(url) { fetch(url).then((res) => { console.log(res); }); } apiFunction("https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1"); 

Here, we’ll use fetch for a practical example. First, write a function:

function apiFunction(url) {} 

You’ve named it apiFunction and gave it a parameter called url. This function will send a request to that URL. Then you call the built-in fetch function:

fetch(url); 

So what does fetch do with the URL? Basically, fetch returns a promise. You know that to get the output from a promise, you use then. So you write:

.then((res)=>{}) 

After the response comes back, you use a callback function. Here, you log the response to the console:

console.log(res); 

This is how your apiFunction is set up.

Now call the function. You need to pass a URL for the API call. A popular choice is jsonplaceholder, so use its /todos/1 endpoint:

apiFunction("https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1"); 

Check the output. Notice that it appears after a short delay-this is asynchronous.

To make this clearer, write another line below:

console.log("I am here"); 

Now the question is: which prints first? Without a doubt, “I am here” prints first, and then the output from apiFunction appears. This clearly demonstrates the flow of asynchronous operations. Since the response comes quickly, it might not have been obvious without this extra line.

What does this mean? The output is coming, right? Here, the connection to closures is that you passed the url parameter from outside when calling apiFunction. This url now exists inside the body of apiFunction. fetch takes it as a parameter, and then the callback function inside then executes much later.

By that time, the call to apiFunction has already finished, but the callback still remembers the variables from its scope. That’s why even after the result arrives, you can still access url. To see this, print it:

console.log(url); 

Notice that the output is correct. This means that if there were more nested functions inside then, like another then inside a then, all the way down, the innermost function could still access the original url. And this is possible only because of closures.

Refactoring with External Function

Full code: example-6.js

// example-6.js function apiFunction(url) { handleResponse = function (res) { console.log(res); console.log(url); }; fetch(url).then(handleResponse); console.dir(handleResponse); } apiFunction("https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1"); 

To demonstrate, let’s rewrite the callback function inside apiFunction a little differently:

function handleResponse(res) {} 

This function simply does console.log(url). Now pass handleResponse into the then. Then write:

console.dir(handleResponse); 

In the output, you’ll see that inside handleResponse, the closure contains url. This is because it was part of apiFunction‘s scope, so it can access it.

Advanced Example – Closures in Loops

Finally, let’s look at another example that often comes up in job interviews. This one is a bit more complex and tricky, and it shows how using closures inside loops can create unpredictable output.

Synchronous Loop Example

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) { function a() { console.log(i); } a(); } 

Let’s write a simple for loop:

for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) {} 

This loop will run three times, and inside it we’ll define another function:

function a() {} 

Inside this function, you simply do:

console.log(i); 

From this, you see that the function a exists within the scope of the for loop, but in reality, it’s also accessible in the global scope. Then you call the function a:

a(); 

The expected output would be 0, 1, 2. First, the value of i prints 0, then 1, then 2 – one after another. Looking at the output, you see 0, 1, 2. This is because you defined i using let.

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) { function a() { console.log(i); } a(); } 

If you remove let and use var instead, what happens? Even with var, the output will be the same in this simple case because var works outside the block scope. Writing for (var i = 0) or declaring var i separately behaves effectively the same.

// example-7.js var i; for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) { function a() { console.log(i); } a(); } 

So in this case, there’s no problem. A closure isn’t required because you are running the function in the global scope. Your i prints 0, then 1, then 2, and everything works correctly.

Asynchronous Loop Example

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) { setTimeout(function () { console.log(i); }, 1000 * i); } console.log("After for loop"); 

Now let’s go back and use let for i again. Suppose you want to call the a function from outside the loop. Imagine you wrap the function call in a setTimeout, and in the first parameter you pass the body of a as a callback, while the second parameter is 1000 * i milliseconds.

Using this 1000 * i, you want 0 to print after 1 second, 1 after 2 seconds, and 2 after 3 seconds. When you run this, the output comes exactly as expected: after 1 second, 0 prints; after 2 seconds, 1 prints; and after 3 seconds, 2 prints.

But here’s the important point: the for loop itself is synchronous, while the functions inside setTimeout are asynchronous. That means the functions inside setTimeout will execute one by one according to the timer, only after the loop has finished. First after 1 second, then after 2, and then after 3.

You can verify this asynchronous behavior. Suppose at the end of the loop you write:

console.log("After for loop"); 

Now, if you check the output, “After for loop” prints first, then after 1 second, 0 prints, after 2 seconds, 1 prints, and finally 2 prints. This clearly shows how asynchronous functions execute, right? No confusion there.

The var vs let Problem

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) { setTimeout(function () { console.log(i); }, 1000 * i); } console.log("After for loop"); 

Now, let’s see what happens if you replace let i with var i. The interesting part is, if you use “var i” instead of “let i”, the behavior changes. All three outputs end up being 3. You don’t get 0, 1, 2 like before. That’s exactly the tricky part of this question.

This question often comes up in job interviews because it’s a bit advanced, but if you understand closures and the difference between let and var scopes, it’s not complicated at all. You can analyze this by going back to let. Remove var and write:

let i = 0; 

Now the expected output is 0, 1, 2. let is block-scoped, meaning this i exists only inside the loop and has no effect outside.

During the first iteration, i is 0, and the setTimeout function is defined. This function will be called after the loop finishes, so a closure is used to remember the value of i. The callback needs a closure to reference i correctly. Since let doesn’t leak outside the loop, each iteration creates a new i. For example, when i becomes 1, it’s a completely separate i from the previous iteration.

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js var i; for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) { setTimeout(function () { console.log(i); }, 1000 * i); } console.log(i); console.log("After for loop"); 

So, when this function runs the second time, it references this new i. But with var, the situation is different. var is function-scoped, so the same variable exists outside the loop. If you write:

var i; 

and then use the loop:

for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {} 

there is only one i. Changing i inside the loop modifies the same i – no new i is created. So when the setTimeout callbacks execute, they all reference that same i. From previous examples, you know setTimeout callbacks run after the loop finishes. Now, after the loop ends, what’s the value of i? Since you used var, i has become 3.

Check it with:

console.log(i); 

In the console, you’ll see 3 prints first. That means that when the callbacks execute, they all reference the same i, which is already 3.

So every console.log in the callbacks prints i = 3, which explains the output perfectly.

Using console.dir with Loop Closures

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js // var i; for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) { function myFunc() { console.log(i); } setTimeout(myFunc, 1000 * i); console.dir(myFunc); } console.log("After for loop"); 

To understand this even better, you can use “console.dir” like before.

Let’s see how. First, you’ll stick with the let case. So in the for loop you write:

let i = 0; 

You comment out the global “var i;” since let is block-scoped. Now let’s see how the closure works. The closure is created inside the setTimeout callback function, and you want to inspect this callback function.

For that, you define:

function myFunc() {} 

and pass this myFunc inside setTimeout. Then, to inspect it, write:

console.dir(myFunc); 

If you run this, the browser shows the same output. That means the dir of myFunc appears three times, but in Chrome’s console, it only prints once. Chrome wraps similar objects together, so even though the internal properties are different, it doesn’t display them separately. To see each property individually, take the next step.

Below the dir, write:

console.log("---"); 

This acts as a separator. Now, when the browser prints myFunc’s dir, it also prints the separator, making it clear that each instance is separate.

At the same time, outside the for loop, add:

console.log("After for loop"); 

Now, if you check the output, the browser prints ‘After for loop’ first, then 0, 1, 2. When you defined it, the console logs show myFunc and the dashes.

Notice, when i is 0, the closure holds i = 0. When i = 1, the closure holds i = 1. When i = 2, the closure holds i = 2. So, all three values exist as references until the end, which is why you get three separate outputs.

The var Loop Problem

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) { function myFunc() { console.log(i); } setTimeout(myFunc, 1000 * i); console.dir(myFunc); console.log("---"); } console.log("After for loop"); console.log(i); 

But what happens if you replace "let i" with "var i"? After printing 'After for loop', all three outputs show 3. How? When i is 0, there’s no closure because var moves this variable to the global scope. Unlike the previous example, no closure is needed here. Var exists in the global scope, and i changes within that same global variable.

So, if you expand the first myFunc in the console and look for i in the global scope, you’ll see i = 3. Why? Because the for loop finishes first, and at the end, i becomes 3. At the moment of 'After for loop', i is 3. If you do “console.log(i)” there, the browser prints 3. This means, when the reference values are called, they still use the reference to that i. Even if i changes later in the program, since the calls happen afterward, the reference values get the updated i.

That’s why the first call shows 3, the second call shows 3, and the third call also shows 3. If you expand them all, you’ll see i = 3 everywhere. This happens because no closure is used here; it’s referencing the original i in the global scope, which keeps updating.

The difference in scope between let and var is why the output changes completely.

Fixing the var Loop Problem with IIFE

To fix this var issue, you can create an IIFE inside the for loop. This IIFE will take one parameter: in this case, the value of your loop variable “i.”

Full code: example-7.js

// example-7.js for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) { (function (i) { function myFunc() { console.log(i); } setTimeout(myFunc, 1000 * i); console.dir(myFunc); console.log("---"); })(i); } console.log("After for loop"); 

You write the code. Inside the IIFE, you’re passing a parameter named “i.” Of course, you can name it anything you want – you already know that. But for now, just keep it as “i.” Then, when you call the IIFE, pass the loop’s “i” value into it. Nice, right?

Let’s see what the output looks like. This time, you get 0, 1, and 2 correctly. So, why is it fixed now? Because “i” is now inside its own scope within the IIFE. Whenever you pass “i” to myFunc, a separate copy of that “i” is created as a parameter inside myFunc, and that copy is what gets used inside the function.

Everything’s clear now, right? If you expand the dirs at the end, you’ll see: the last one has “i = 2” in its closure, the second one has “i = 1,” and the first one has “i = 0.” Perfectly clear, isn’t it?

Summary and Key Takeaways

If you have a solid grasp of the overall concepts discussed here, and if you practice all these examples repeatedly, your understanding of closures will become much stronger.

Of course, there are more complex examples of closures, but the basics we’ve covered today are the most important. Once you understand them step by step, you’ll be able to create many use cases yourself and debugging will no longer be difficult. Because now, with just a glance at console.dir() or by playing with the code a bit, you can see how closures actually work.

Not having a good understanding of closures can make you get stuck in many parts of JavaScript, especially when working with asynchronous code.

To summarize:

If you’re asked in a job interview, “What is a Closure?” you can answer simply:

A closure is a mechanism where a function remembers variables outside its own scope and can access them whenever needed.

In other words, values that aren’t inside the function itself, but the function takes a reference from its parent or outer scope. This is what we call a Closure.

Closure = Function + Remembered Values

This is why closures are so important in job interviews. They show how deeply a programmer understands JavaScript. A programmer who understands closures can clearly grasp JavaScript’s internal behavior, memory handling, and asynchronous flow.

The Importance of Closures

JavaScript was originally created just for small interactive tasks in the browser, but now you can build large-scale applications, even backend systems, with it. The reason behind this is powerful concepts in JavaScript like Closures, Prototypes, and more.

Many people say, “I know var, let, const, so tell me about closures.” But as you’ve seen, var, let, and const aren’t that simple either. This is where the understanding of closures begins.

Final Words

We covered a lot in this handbook! If reading this all at once feels overwhelming, you can break it into parts and read it step by step. I’ve tried to explain the whole topic very simply, piece by piece. If there are any areas that could be clearer, I appreciate your feedback. But once you’ve really understood and digested this info, you shouldn’t be intimidated by the word “Closure” ever again.

You can find all the source code from this tutorial in this GitHub repository. If it helped you in any way, consider giving it a star to show your support!

If you found the information here valuable, feel free to share it with others who might benefit from it. I’d really appreciate your thoughts – mention me on X @sumit_analyzen or on Facebook @sumit.analyzen, watch my coding tutorials, or simply connect with me on LinkedIn. You can also checkout my official website sumitsaha.me for more details about me.

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Source: freeCodeCamp Programming Tutorials: Python, JavaScript, Git & More.